This paper and the coinciding presentation were the capstone project of my master's course. The project was incredibly broad and allowed us to focus on any topic to exemplify what we had learned over the past two terms.
I chose to show my knowledge of interdisciplinary studies by focusing on working mothers in America, who have a historically difficult time balancing work and home life while experiencing biases fathers do not. To incorporate my current research with my past, I created a women-centred coworking space that incorporated childcare to create the best experience for working mothers in America.
To view the paper in full, press HERE
To view the presentation, press HERE
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Overview
With dwindling birth rates and the forthcoming decline in the American labour force, companies need to begin prioritising their maternal workforce by creating more flexible business practices.
With dwindling birth rates and the forthcoming decline in the American labour force, companies need to begin prioritising their maternal workforce by creating more flexible business practices.
The Problem
The modern American workforce is not set up to support sustainable, long-term careers for mothers. Working women with children face daily instances of slights and biases that cause friction in the workplace. Furthermore, high childcare costs and a lack of accessibility as well as the traditional American view of mothers cause women to often convert to part-time work or leave the workforce entirely after having children.
The modern American workforce is not set up to support sustainable, long-term careers for mothers. Working women with children face daily instances of slights and biases that cause friction in the workplace. Furthermore, high childcare costs and a lack of accessibility as well as the traditional American view of mothers cause women to often convert to part-time work or leave the workforce entirely after having children.
The Solution
In order to retain their maternal workforce, businesses need to prioritise working mothers by increasing their workplace flexibility and allowing access to coworking centres, preferably those with integrated childcare.
In order to retain their maternal workforce, businesses need to prioritise working mothers by increasing their workplace flexibility and allowing access to coworking centres, preferably those with integrated childcare.
Key Points
• Women – especially working mothers – in America are not considered equal
• To help working mothers, businesses must emphasise flexibility
• Coworking centres that incorporate childcare create inclusive, collaborative, community-oriented, and family-friendly workspaces.
• Women – especially working mothers – in America are not considered equal
• To help working mothers, businesses must emphasise flexibility
• Coworking centres that incorporate childcare create inclusive, collaborative, community-oriented, and family-friendly workspaces.
INTRODUCTION
World birth rates are declining rapidly. Worldwide, women are averaging 2.3 births during their lifetimes worldwide, down from 5 births per woman in 1950 (World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results 1). In Europe and Northern America particularly, these numbers have declined greatly and are currently averaging 1.5 births per woman (1). This birth rate is not nearly enough to sustain the Western workforce. As population decline becomes more relevant in the near future, it will be even more essential to prioritise keeping women in the workforce after they have children.
The current American workforce is not constructed to support working mothers. While working women have become commonplace in the US culture, the system as it currently exists fails to understand the intricacies and complications of being a woman with children working in modern America. Marie*, a 55-year-old entrepreneur and mother from the American Midwest, explains: “We have systematic and structural issues and we wonder why we can’t move the needle. Well, we have to get to the groundwater here… The game was not intended for everybody to win. We have to create a new game” (Marie).
Businesses must begin prioritising the longevity of their maternal workforce and to do so, it is essential they make changes to corporate policies and focus on flexibility in the workplace. In the post-pandemic economy, over half of Americans have the ability to work remotely, at least some of the time (Dua et al.). While the ability to control their workplace helps women to sustain a better work-life balance, further changes are necessary to retain as many workers as possible.
Although expensive, the biggest change a company can make to support its maternal workforce is to provide childcare. For many entities, however, the investment into childcare is impossibly large. Instead, companies can help their maternal workforce in smaller ways, including providing access to coworking centres, which are known for their flexibility and versatility. Further, coworking centres with childcare attached are becoming more commonplace in America. Other options include training focused on eliminating biases towards mothers in the workforce and providing flexible hours.
Western populations are declining at alarming rates, and there is little that can be done about the population shift at a local level. However, by investing in working mothers, American businesses can retain their employees and create a more durable and enduring workforce. The most sustainable and economically friendly way for companies to do this is by introducing coworking centres with integrated childcare.
THE MATERNAL WORKFORCE IN AMERICA
In the United States, 40% of women with children under the age of 18 are the primary breadwinners in their family, yet 75% of Americans feel that having a mother that does not work full-time is best for the children (Ross). Many believe that despite approximately 73% of mothers working at least part-time, mothers should still be playing a more “traditional” role in society (Employment Characteristics of Families - 2022). Of the women who do work, 41% say parenthood has made it more difficult to succeed in the workplace. Only 20% of fathers report the same (Raising Kids and Running a Household).
Although working mothers are common in today’s America, women continue to be expected to provide the majority of housework and childcare. Pew Research Center notes 54% of parents in two-working-parent households say that the mother does more when it comes to managing children’s schedules and activities, and 47% say this is also the case when it comes to caring for sick children (Raising Kids). While the American workforce appears to be moving towards gender parity, women still face expectations of being the primary caretaker of both children and the home (Raising Kids).
Stereotypes of women often affect the working mother and her ability to get ahead in the workplace and in her personal life. Women who work part-time are often viewed as less affectionate than homemakers, but warmer than mothers who work full-time. Full-time mothers are often perceived as “less family oriented, more selfish, and less sensitive to the needs of others” than women without formal jobs (‘The Glass Ceiling and the Maternal Wall in Academia’ 99). For mothers in the American workforce, there is no winning. Claire Cain Miller of The New York Times summarises the issue, explaining: “The gender revolution has been largely one-sided – women have entered traditionally male jobs, but men have been reluctant to take on traditionally female activities” (Miller).
The Maternal Wall
Despite career-focused mothers being commonplace in today’s American workforce, women who work after motherhood often face a maternal wall bias. First noted by Joan C. Williams, the maternal wall bias can occur when coworkers and bosses, whether consciously or unconsciously, “perceive a trade-off between competence and warmth,” believing a woman cannot be both a mother and a successful businesswoman (‘The Maternal Wall’).
Despite career-focused mothers being commonplace in today’s American workforce, women who work after motherhood often face a maternal wall bias. First noted by Joan C. Williams, the maternal wall bias can occur when coworkers and bosses, whether consciously or unconsciously, “perceive a trade-off between competence and warmth,” believing a woman cannot be both a mother and a successful businesswoman (‘The Maternal Wall’).
Equally degrading to mothers is the attribution bias, wherein a mother absent from her desk or late for work is assumed to be caring for her children, while a missing father is typically assumed to be researching or absent due to work obligations (‘The Glass Ceiling and the Maternal Wall in Academia’ 99). The attribution bias is expanded when it is considered that absent women without children are assumed to be more like missing fathers: away for an assignment or meeting. Yet once pregnant or having had children, these assumptions fall away and the same temporarily absent woman is assumed to be engaged in childcare obligations (‘The Maternal Wall’).
Emma, a working mother to a young son, explained the feeling of being judged for leaving earlier than everyone else as one of the most prominent parts of her day-to-day life as a working mother. She says: “Even if it’s just in your head… It feels really awkward. I’ve found it’s quite a universal feature [for working mothers]” (Emma). The same does not apply for working fathers. In general, fathers are typically perceived as being more committed to their work after parenthood (Gaskell). Similarly, a woman who utilises family-friendly employment policies often suffers career detriments, such as fewer promotions or raises, while a man who takes paternity or parental leave is commonly viewed as more warm and engaging than before fatherhood (‘The Glass Ceiling and the Maternal Wall in Academia’ 99-102).
The maternal wall bias is often not intended as a negative response to mothers in the workforce, and yet it still leads to negative consequences. Williams explains that managers may inadvertently widen the gender inequality gap when they try to be helpful by eliminating travel and long hours for mothers, but refraining from doing the same for fathers (‘The Maternal Wall’). Likewise, by not assigning larger and more time-consuming projects to mothers, managers are unconsciously increasing the gap between women and men in the workforce, leading to career-long imbalances (‘The Maternal Wall’).
Parental Leave
Under the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), American parents are granted only twelve weeks of unpaid leave within twelve months of a child’s birth (‘The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993’). Additionally, employees are not entitled to “any right, benefit, or position of employment other than the right, benefit, or position to which the employee would have been entitled to had the employee not taken leave,” suggesting that any promotions or advancements promised before leave are not required to be granted when returning to work (‘The Family and Medical Leave Act’).
Under the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), American parents are granted only twelve weeks of unpaid leave within twelve months of a child’s birth (‘The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993’). Additionally, employees are not entitled to “any right, benefit, or position of employment other than the right, benefit, or position to which the employee would have been entitled to had the employee not taken leave,” suggesting that any promotions or advancements promised before leave are not required to be granted when returning to work (‘The Family and Medical Leave Act’).
The United States is the only country in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that does not grant paid leave at a national level. Approximately 40% of parents who have a child are not covered by FMLA at all and 74% of those uncovered parents do not have access to any kind of paid parental leave or benefits (Rocha 48). Preventing the family gap – in which fathers advance faster and further than mothers – when parental leave in America is not only unequal, but also considerably lacking in comparison to other economically advanced countries, is nearly impossible (48).
Benefits
The importance of federal policy regarding parental leave cannot be stressed enough. By ensuring paid parental leave, maternal employment and salaries are greatly increased, and there is a positive benefit to the well-being and health of children that extends well past their first year of life (Rocha 48). More equitable parental leave leads to a bigger commitment by men to domestic obligations, and thus greater gender equality in both the home and the workplace (52). Fathers who participate in paternity leave develop stronger bonds with their children and have a deeper involvement in care activities throughout their children's lives (49).
The importance of federal policy regarding parental leave cannot be stressed enough. By ensuring paid parental leave, maternal employment and salaries are greatly increased, and there is a positive benefit to the well-being and health of children that extends well past their first year of life (Rocha 48). More equitable parental leave leads to a bigger commitment by men to domestic obligations, and thus greater gender equality in both the home and the workplace (52). Fathers who participate in paternity leave develop stronger bonds with their children and have a deeper involvement in care activities throughout their children's lives (49).
Fathers typically elect to take the entirety of their paternity leave only if they are compensated to the full extent and the leave is not transferable to their spouse or partner. Conversely, a mother will almost always avail herself of the full leave if economically feasible (Rocha 53). Companies that encourage paternity leave “equalise the perception of all workers – male or female – as carers, thus improving the position of women in the labour market” (55). Furthermore, in countries with considerable leave for both men and women, the gender gap index is noticeably smaller. For example, Sweden has a gender gap index of 81.5%, the fifth highest in the world, whereas America ranks forty-third at 74.8% (Global Gender Gap Report 2023) (Figure 1).
Often, the divide in the gender pay gap increases considerably when women approach their mid-thirties (Greenwood). This is the period at which women are more likely to become mothers and take maternity leave, while their male counterparts do not necessarily partake in any parental leave if such is available at all (Greenwood). In countries such as Sweden and Portugal, where paternal leave is separate from maternal or parental leave, there is a considerable uptake in male participants, and thus a smaller gender pay gap (Global Gender Gap Report 2023).
Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Social Policy Division – Directorate of Employment, Labour and Social Affairs, OECD Family Database http://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm.
Note: Data from 2013, or in some cases latest available
Note: Data from 2013, or in some cases latest available
Childcare in America
The United States is facing a massive childcare crisis. Simply, families are paying exorbitant rates to place their children in childcare, while childcare centres do not have enough revenue flow to pay their employees liveable wages or compete with salaries available in less time-intensive, stressful jobs (Coffey and Khattar). Experienced staff cannot afford to remain in childcare centres and so leave for new career paths. Those who do stay have higher rates of depression than the general population, abysmal pay, lower access to benefits, and little opportunity for career advancement (Coffey and Khattar).
The United States is facing a massive childcare crisis. Simply, families are paying exorbitant rates to place their children in childcare, while childcare centres do not have enough revenue flow to pay their employees liveable wages or compete with salaries available in less time-intensive, stressful jobs (Coffey and Khattar). Experienced staff cannot afford to remain in childcare centres and so leave for new career paths. Those who do stay have higher rates of depression than the general population, abysmal pay, lower access to benefits, and little opportunity for career advancement (Coffey and Khattar).
Although the American childcare system was already suffering prior to the coronavirus pandemic, the crisis rose exponentially as the disease spread throughout the world. From February 2020 to September 2022, the childcare workforce lost 88,000 jobs and has never fully recovered, unlike most other industries (Coffey and Khattar). In response to the lack of experienced and sustained staff, parents are removing their children from formalised care, exacerbating the problem and leading to decreased revenue within the industry.
Public Childcare
While many other developed countries provide public childcare options, America relies on insufficient funding streams to support its public programs, many of which are lacking in the capital and resources needed for providing high-quality, easily accessible care (Workman and Ullrich). Additionally, public childcare in America is traditionally available only five days a week and nine months a year, following the school year calendar rather than a typical work schedule (Witte and Trowbridge 23). With a lack of programs that are both accessible and of high quality, American families struggle to put their children into public childcare programs. Instead, they are often forced to rely on inferior family care options, which commonly lead to gaps in child preparedness in primary school (Herman and Lazarin).
While many other developed countries provide public childcare options, America relies on insufficient funding streams to support its public programs, many of which are lacking in the capital and resources needed for providing high-quality, easily accessible care (Workman and Ullrich). Additionally, public childcare in America is traditionally available only five days a week and nine months a year, following the school year calendar rather than a typical work schedule (Witte and Trowbridge 23). With a lack of programs that are both accessible and of high quality, American families struggle to put their children into public childcare programs. Instead, they are often forced to rely on inferior family care options, which commonly lead to gaps in child preparedness in primary school (Herman and Lazarin).
Since 1965, America has largely relied on Head Start and the Early Childhood Development Fund for all public early childhood education. However, these means are insufficient to sustain childcare for such a large population. Since its inception, the Head Start Program has had a low success rate, and today it reaches only 11% of the children eligible for the program (Keating and Heinemeier 74).
An additional federal response to childcare has been The Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG), which passed Congress with bipartisan support, first in 1990 and again in 2014 (Gibbs and Falgout). While this grant has assisted in childcare issues in the past, the exacerbation reached a critical level during the pandemic led the Biden Administration to propose and pass the American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA), which provides states with funds to be distributed to childcare centres at their discretion (in addition to other pandemic response measures) (Gibbs and Falgout). While this fund is currently keeping the American childcare sector alive and affordable, it is set to expire in 2024, with no current backup plan to support US childcare (Gibbs and Falgout).
Even with the monies allotted to states by the CCDBG and ARPA, America ranks near the bottom of the OECD for public spending on families and children (Ansel and Markezich). Without an influx of funding similar to that provided by the ARPA until 2024, there is little hope for sustaining public childcare programs in America and private care will likely reach untenable prices (Gibbs and Falgout).
Private Childcare
America’s childcare structure is considered a “mix economy system,” meaning it operates with both public and private childcare options (Ansel and Markezich). However, as detailed above, the American public childcare system is severely lacking, especially when compared to other developed countries (Ansel and Markezich). In response, many American families rely on private childcare, which encompasses both kinship care and more formalised, private childcare options.
America’s childcare structure is considered a “mix economy system,” meaning it operates with both public and private childcare options (Ansel and Markezich). However, as detailed above, the American public childcare system is severely lacking, especially when compared to other developed countries (Ansel and Markezich). In response, many American families rely on private childcare, which encompasses both kinship care and more formalised, private childcare options.
Kinship Care
Often, families who cannot afford to subsist as a single-income household rely on family members or friends to provide childcare (Gibbs and Falgout). Termed kinship care, this type of childcare is found more commonly in Hispanic and African-American communities than it is in white homes. In America, nearly 60% of Hispanic families reside in a childcare desert – areas with more than 50 children under the age of five which have extremely few or no childcare options – leaving them without options for affordable care (Bogle and Foreman 6). As such, they rely heavily on kinship care to provide for their children while their parents are working (8). Informal childcare such as kinship care is commonly favoured for lower-income families because it is “affordable, mimics an in-home care setting, and has flexible hours” (8).
Often, families who cannot afford to subsist as a single-income household rely on family members or friends to provide childcare (Gibbs and Falgout). Termed kinship care, this type of childcare is found more commonly in Hispanic and African-American communities than it is in white homes. In America, nearly 60% of Hispanic families reside in a childcare desert – areas with more than 50 children under the age of five which have extremely few or no childcare options – leaving them without options for affordable care (Bogle and Foreman 6). As such, they rely heavily on kinship care to provide for their children while their parents are working (8). Informal childcare such as kinship care is commonly favoured for lower-income families because it is “affordable, mimics an in-home care setting, and has flexible hours” (8).
Unfortunately, while kinship care is an excellent alternative for many families, it can also lead to a disadvantage for children who never receive formalised early education (Herman and Lazarin). 48% of children under the poverty line are ready for school at age 5, compared to the 75% of children from families with moderate to high incomes (Isaacs 1). By attending preschool, “the likelihood of being school ready is nine percentage points higher” (1). Economically disadvantaged children with limited access to cognitively enriching home and early education environments are more likely to remain in poverty throughout their life, furthering a cycle of low socioeconomic mobility that further grows economic and often racial inequalities (Kalil).
Source and Notes: Brookings tabulations of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth Cohort (ECLS-B). Near Poor is defined as household income between 100 and 185 of poverty percent and moderate or high income is defined as household income above 185 percent of poverty.
Despite the obvious benefits of high-quality, formalised childcare, for many families, these programs are an impossibility. Thus families of colour and those of lower economic status typically turn to kinship care, leaving their children to begin primary school at a disadvantage that they will spend much of their lives attempting to alleviate.
Despite the obvious benefits of high-quality, formalised childcare, for many families, these programs are an impossibility. Thus families of colour and those of lower economic status typically turn to kinship care, leaving their children to begin primary school at a disadvantage that they will spend much of their lives attempting to alleviate.
Paid Childcare
Because the American care system so heavily relies on paid childcare, its current issues are perhaps the most urgent. These can be divided into three categories: a lack of resources, extreme costs, and failure to provide high-quality care.
Because the American care system so heavily relies on paid childcare, its current issues are perhaps the most urgent. These can be divided into three categories: a lack of resources, extreme costs, and failure to provide high-quality care.
Childcare centres in America do not have the support or resources to pay their staff a wage commensurate with their experience and abilities. At a national level, full-time childcare teachers are paid less than half of what kindergarten teachers are paid. Income rates only decrease when it comes to a consideration of what women of colour earn (Coffey and Khattar). Meanwhile, childcare providers are required to work more intensively than other educational providers, due largely to the age of their charges.
Most private childcare centres are funded by a combination of government grants and admission fees. With the American childcare crisis in full force, grants are being stretched too thin, leading admission fees to rise and families simply cannot make up the difference. Oftentimes, childcare costs more than in-state university tuition, putting a major strain on families’ incomes (Ansel and Markezich).
In response to the massive increase in childcare fees, many families decide to convert to a single income after having a child, because the entirety (or a large majority) of one spouse’s salary must be designated for childcare that would be unnecessary if they were not employed (Schochet). Taking a break from the workforce to provide childcare falls largely on the mother, with nearly two million parents resigning in order to care for their children (Schochet and Malik).
Because of loose regulations within the childcare and early education fields, many parents do not know the difference between low- and high-quality care (Workman and Ullrich). Long waitlists, inflexible employers, and expenses are all additional reasons parents fail to choose high-quality early education programs (Workman and Ullrich). Furthermore, an increase in childcare deserts after the pandemic has left few options for care available to families in those areas, and thus a disregard for the level of care out of necessity (Modestino et al.). Kate, a young mother, describes her method of picking childcare as less about the level of care and more about what was available, explaining: “I signed him up for various nurseries when he was about two weeks old, which I thought would give me plenty of time, but it was actually still a squeeze” (Kate). Kate further explained it was suggested to her to put her child on the waiting lists before he was even born, but her family assumed they would have plenty of time with her extended maternity leave (Kate).
Kate’s experience is not uncommon in today’s childcare system. As providers leave for less time-intensive and stress-inducing jobs, centres close down at a rapid rate or are unable to accept as many children as they once did, forcing families to choose from fewer options. In Louisiana, over 60% of childcare centres are turning away families in order to make up for the loss of providers (Coffey & Khattar). Other states face similar losses. When centres cannot accommodate as many children as they once did or when they close down all together, childcare deserts are only widened, leaving even families who are able to pay the exorbitant rates without options (Gibbs & Falgout).
Impact on Women
Even in the most progressive of families, women tend to assume the brunt of the childcare responsibilities (Miller). Although the time fathers spend with their families has increased greatly in recent years, modern working mothers still spend an average of twice as much time on childcare and housework than do fathers (Miller). Furthermore, from an economic standpoint, having children has a much larger impact on women than it does on men (Miller). This is largely because despite a rise in the acceptability of equal parenting in progressive society, childcare is still often viewed as a mother’s job. Kate explains: “Me and my husband split childcare responsibilities very, very equally. And I’d say that’s been quite unusual.” (Kate). Although Kate and her husband are able to divide responsibilities equally, in 54% of homes where both parents work full time, the mother does more work (Raising Kids and Running a Household).
Even in the most progressive of families, women tend to assume the brunt of the childcare responsibilities (Miller). Although the time fathers spend with their families has increased greatly in recent years, modern working mothers still spend an average of twice as much time on childcare and housework than do fathers (Miller). Furthermore, from an economic standpoint, having children has a much larger impact on women than it does on men (Miller). This is largely because despite a rise in the acceptability of equal parenting in progressive society, childcare is still often viewed as a mother’s job. Kate explains: “Me and my husband split childcare responsibilities very, very equally. And I’d say that’s been quite unusual.” (Kate). Although Kate and her husband are able to divide responsibilities equally, in 54% of homes where both parents work full time, the mother does more work (Raising Kids and Running a Household).
Reliance on mothers comes not only within the household, but also oftentimes from the child’s care providers. Schools and childcare centres are more likely to default to the mother when it comes to childcare, whether that be for behavioural problems or transportation needs (Pratt 96-97). Consequently, mothers often choose jobs that are close to their children’s school – fathers do not do the same (96-97). When a child is out sick, the mother is 47% more likely to be responsible for managing his/her illness (Raising Kids and Running a Household).
Because women are typically more responsible than their partner for their children’s care, 41% of working mothers report that motherhood has made it harder for them to advance in their career. Only 20% of father’s say the same (Raising Kids and Running a Household). This discrepancy can be attributed to the aforementioned maternal wall and attribution biases, by which a woman is given less responsibility at work due to her supposed dedication to childcare, while a man is given more responsibility for the same reasons (‘The Glass Ceiling and the Maternal Wall in Academia’ 99).
Childcare after Coronavirus
With the pandemic and the rise of remote work, childcare needs have changed. Parents working from home today have more flexibility to see their children, but they also have more trouble balancing their work and home life because there is little separation between the two (Working Parents After the Pandemic 2). Emma explains that while her family employs a nanny, she has to close the door to her office, adding “if I could hear [my son] too much it would be very distracting, especially if he were upset for some reason.” However, she notes getting the opportunity to see her son more at lunch and breaks is worth the occasional distraction (Emma).
With the pandemic and the rise of remote work, childcare needs have changed. Parents working from home today have more flexibility to see their children, but they also have more trouble balancing their work and home life because there is little separation between the two (Working Parents After the Pandemic 2). Emma explains that while her family employs a nanny, she has to close the door to her office, adding “if I could hear [my son] too much it would be very distracting, especially if he were upset for some reason.” However, she notes getting the opportunity to see her son more at lunch and breaks is worth the occasional distraction (Emma).
As the childcare crisis comes to a head in America today, mothers find themselves leaving work more often than fathers to assume childcare responsibilities (Working Parents After the Pandemic 2). According to the United States Department of Labour, during the pandemic maternal employment rates declined by 15.7%, while paternal employment rates only declined by 9.6% (1). Although maternal employment has recovered somewhat since the pandemic ended, it still remains below what it once was (Landivar and deWolf 1).
Mothers of young children especially saw disruptions in their employment as their children had to leave school and turn to remote learning. Even as schools reopened, households continue to report work disruptions in the face of childcare difficulties, leading mothers especially to reduce their hours, take leave, or resign from their jobs entirely (Landivar and deWolf 1).
COWORKING CENTRES
First created in 2005 in San Francisco, California, coworking centres have exploded to include over 30,000 spaces worldwide (Spinuzzi 400). Coworking centres can be defined as “shared spaces where individuals pursue their own careers and jobs but in the presence of others with the aim of being part of a community" (Kraus et al. 1). These centres provide an essential balance between the professionalism of the office and the flexibility of remote work (Orel 3). Further, coworking centres are thought to be beneficial not just for the physical space they provide, but for the communities they cultivate (Brown 112). Welfare coworking centres in particular are known for providing connections within and outside of the space, as they focus on specific social or cultural issues and target groups who are concerned with these problems (Ivaldi et al. 229).
Impact on Women
Women-focused coworking centres have become a particularly popular branch of welfare coworking. These centres are specifically focused on rebuilding the legacy of women’s work in America and creating a supportive environment in which their members can do so (Ivaldi et al. 234). Although coworking culture is still largely dominated by men, with less than 40% of participants being women (Tagliaro et al. 259), female-oriented coworking centres have risen in prominence throughout the last decade. Hera Hub, founded in 2011 in San Diego, California is largely considered to be the first coworking centre to cater specifically to women (259). Five years later, The Wing opened in New York City. First lauded as a feminist-friendly force of strong female workers, The Wing closed due to controversy in 2022 (Rosman). Nevertheless, its popularity and support from famous feminist celebrities and its rapid expansion across the United States led to the popularisation and expansion of female-oriented coworking (Rosman).
Women-focused coworking centres have become a particularly popular branch of welfare coworking. These centres are specifically focused on rebuilding the legacy of women’s work in America and creating a supportive environment in which their members can do so (Ivaldi et al. 234). Although coworking culture is still largely dominated by men, with less than 40% of participants being women (Tagliaro et al. 259), female-oriented coworking centres have risen in prominence throughout the last decade. Hera Hub, founded in 2011 in San Diego, California is largely considered to be the first coworking centre to cater specifically to women (259). Five years later, The Wing opened in New York City. First lauded as a feminist-friendly force of strong female workers, The Wing closed due to controversy in 2022 (Rosman). Nevertheless, its popularity and support from famous feminist celebrities and its rapid expansion across the United States led to the popularisation and expansion of female-oriented coworking (Rosman).
As the coworking industry recovers from the massive economic downturn experienced during the coronavirus pandemic, women-focused coworking centres have also returned to popularity. For many parents, and women in particular, the pandemic highlighted the stress of the work-life balance without offering many opportunities for a reprieve (Tagliaro et al. 254). For mothers, coworking centres often offer the balance they are looking for: the flexibility of remote work with the stability and lack of distractions provided by commuting and working in an office (258). Not surprisingly, the success of workspaces catering primarily to women catalysed the idea of adding childcare into coworking spaces (Chandler).
Childcare in Coworking Centres
It is established that good childcare is essential to a successful maternal workforce. For countless mothers obtaining high-quality child supervision means applying most, if not all, of their salary to childcare, leaving their partner’s income to support the family in other ways. As Emma explains “I pay the entirety of my post-tax income on a nanny” (Emma). For many families, women choose to leave their jobs to affordably care for their children.
It is established that good childcare is essential to a successful maternal workforce. For countless mothers obtaining high-quality child supervision means applying most, if not all, of their salary to childcare, leaving their partner’s income to support the family in other ways. As Emma explains “I pay the entirety of my post-tax income on a nanny” (Emma). For many families, women choose to leave their jobs to affordably care for their children.
By including childcare in coworking memberships, businesses allow their parental employees the flexibility to work close to their children while enjoying a professional work environment. Additionally, coworking-based childcare centres are often less expensive than full-time childcare, easing some of the families’ financial burden. As the US falls behind other countries in terms of childcare, it is essential to incorporate flexible environments like coworking centres that include both work and childcare spaces (Chandler). Childcare integrated into coworking centres is not unprecedented, as there are spaces around the world offering care options in conjunction with their coworking centres (Orel 10). By incorporating full or partial childcare into coworking centres, these spaces allow families the ability to have their children cared for while they work (10).
While some coworking centres offer full-time care, such as Two Birds located in Washington, DC, it is more common for coworking centres to operate similarly to gyms, with childcare offered in three-hour segments (Chandler). The level of regulation for both full-time and part-time childcare spaces differs by state, yet many states do not require strict regulation of part-time care (Railey). While most full-time childcare centres require licensing in order to operate, many states allow facilities in gyms and clubs to be exempt, as in Washington, DC, which classifies these services as “temporary babysitting” (‘Licensing and Compliance’).
Coworking Since Coronavirus
Coworking, like many other American industries, suffered greatly during the coronavirus pandemic (Ceinar Manzini and Mariotti 278). One in five coworking centres in the United States and Canada closed as the pandemic ravaged the world from 2020 - 2022 (Wirekoh). Coworking centres were forced to alter their structural layout to encourage social distancing, much like the changes required in traditional offices (Ceinar Manzini and Mariotti 258). In an attempt to prevent users from cancelling memberships, centres moved their more community-focused activities online, creating Zoom lectures and coffee hours (288). Despite these efforts, approximately 72% of coworking spaces worldwide experienced a negative impact on membership and contract renewals since the pandemic (288).
Coworking, like many other American industries, suffered greatly during the coronavirus pandemic (Ceinar Manzini and Mariotti 278). One in five coworking centres in the United States and Canada closed as the pandemic ravaged the world from 2020 - 2022 (Wirekoh). Coworking centres were forced to alter their structural layout to encourage social distancing, much like the changes required in traditional offices (Ceinar Manzini and Mariotti 258). In an attempt to prevent users from cancelling memberships, centres moved their more community-focused activities online, creating Zoom lectures and coffee hours (288). Despite these efforts, approximately 72% of coworking spaces worldwide experienced a negative impact on membership and contract renewals since the pandemic (288).
With the pandemic now over, a majority of traditional companies have had to adapt to become permanently hybrid or remote, as more workers choose to work out of the office than in. For working parents, this is especially essential. Kate explains “I would really question [a company’s] motives if they were asking me to be in the office every day,” suggesting that since the pandemic, most white-collar jobs do not require daily in-office work (Kate).
As more employees take this point of view, remote work has popularised, while at the same time leading workers to feel isolated and unsociable (Hadley and Mortensen). In response, many white-collar workers are turning to coworking centres, the number of which has risen 121% since 2021 (T. Williams).
While hybrid work options – partly in-office and partly-out-of-office days or weeks - are common solutions, some companies have even gone so far as to eliminate formal offices altogether, opting instead to rent spaces in coworking centres for their employees who prefer to work in an office setting (Howell 3).
CREATING FLEXIBILITY
Creating a more successful and sustainable experience for working mothers in America ultimately comes down to one thing: flexibility. If businesses work to prioritise flexibility within their internal structure, they will better maintain their maternal workforce and create a more inclusive and positive environment. Parents often find that while the flexibility of remote work is far more conducive to their lifestyles, it is difficult to find a separation (Working Parents After the Pandemic 2).
Companies that encourage work in third places – areas that are neither work nor home – acknowledge the struggles of telecommuting parents and show their dedication to the maternal workforce. By financing coworking centres for their employees, businesses allow parents to work outside the home while also being free to come and go as needed. Not only does this decrease feelings of attribution bias and judgement in the workplace, but it also allows for a more healthy balance of work and home life.
For employees around the world, “flexible work arrangements are shown to have a handful of positive aspects including increased productivity, freedom of time management, and balancing work life aspects” (Orel 4). Women especially look for flexibility in their work, with 49% placing flexibility in the top three things they consider when looking for a job (Chandler). There are myriad ways to create flexibility to alleviate some of the struggles of the American maternal workforce without putting large financial or structural strain on a company. These start with coworking.
Stipends
According to McKinsey & Company, approximately 58% of American job holders, equivalent to 92 million people, say they can work remotely at least part of the time (Dua et al.). However, as more parents fall into the remote work category, many strive for the separation of work and home they once had, but do not wish to return to the stringent schedule of being in the office from nine to five. For working individuals, coworking spaces represent a viable working alternative that fulfils both their social needs and work goals (Orel 3). Companies offering coworking stipends for memberships to centres encourage their employees to fulfil all of their needs.
According to McKinsey & Company, approximately 58% of American job holders, equivalent to 92 million people, say they can work remotely at least part of the time (Dua et al.). However, as more parents fall into the remote work category, many strive for the separation of work and home they once had, but do not wish to return to the stringent schedule of being in the office from nine to five. For working individuals, coworking spaces represent a viable working alternative that fulfils both their social needs and work goals (Orel 3). Companies offering coworking stipends for memberships to centres encourage their employees to fulfil all of their needs.
Many businesses are beginning to offer coworking stipends as part of their benefits package, a concept providing advantages for both coworking centres and employers. First offered by tech company Automattic in 2017, coworking stipends are becoming increasingly popular after the COVID-19 pandemic (Howell 3).
By providing a third space that is neither the home nor the office, companies can respect the boundaries and versatility parents need in order to have the best work-life balance possible. Additionally, by encouraging workers to choose their own coworking centre, parents can find workspaces that fit their personal needs, whether that be the environment, included benefits, or proximity to their homes or child’s care. Coworking spaces are largely about community and collaboration, something that is possible only if the centre is full of people who have the same ideals for their working environment (Brown 112).
With the addition of more coworkers, professional as well as personal networks grow for all members (Brown 120). Many parents struggle to find childcare outside of work hours, as childcare rarely operates outside the nine-to-five work day. Kate explains that if emergencies or events outside of her typical schedule occur at the last minute “I often just have to say no because I can’t organise childcare at short notice, and there’s some pushback around that because there is an expectation you should be there” (Kate). By being a part of a coworking centre with a large parent-based community, families will create stronger networks of secondary childcare for when emergencies or events at atypical times arise.
Operational Hours
While most coworking centres operate at the same hours as the typical work day, longer hours would promote a more inclusive environment. For many mothers, the work day revolves around their childcare hours, but if both the coworking space and childcare centre operated outside of typical nine-to-five working hours, parents would have more flexibility to get their work done without the pressure of doing it all at a specific time.
While most coworking centres operate at the same hours as the typical work day, longer hours would promote a more inclusive environment. For many mothers, the work day revolves around their childcare hours, but if both the coworking space and childcare centre operated outside of typical nine-to-five working hours, parents would have more flexibility to get their work done without the pressure of doing it all at a specific time.
Marie explains that for many of the women she employs, working odd hours works best for them. She adds, “Flexibility is more than work location… The freedom and independence to be able to do [her employees’] jobs in a way that works with their natural rhythms is the common theme” (Marie). Whether these be familial obligations or a preference towards work styles, work hours should not depend solely on a nine-to-five schedule. In flexible companies that trust their employees, work hours often vary. Marie explains: “A lot of part-time or flexible options that [mothers] have historically had caused women to be underemployed just to get the flexibility,” (Marie). Companies that have confidence in their employees to get their work done without heavy oversight provide a more welcoming environment for mothers and, as such, have a more steady and enduring maternal workforce.
Trainings
Coworking centres often further their revenues and increase their membership benefits by hosting community events and classes. While internal events highlight networking and provide opportunities to strengthen relationships, external events circulate knowledge and ideas, allow more individual and group interaction, and increase the visibility of both the coworking centre and the coworkers within it (Brown 116).
Coworking centres often further their revenues and increase their membership benefits by hosting community events and classes. While internal events highlight networking and provide opportunities to strengthen relationships, external events circulate knowledge and ideas, allow more individual and group interaction, and increase the visibility of both the coworking centre and the coworkers within it (Brown 116).
On a separate note, biases in the workplace can often only be prevented through top-down leadership changes (Williams and Mihaylo). Training about maternal biases, including the maternal wall bias and attribution bias, as well as instruction on how management teams can be allies of parents returning to work or balancing a new schedule could help working mothers feel more supported and companies to be more diverse (Williams and Mihaylo).
Working mothers report often feeling isolated or judged when returning to work, something companies do not typically address. Emma explains that while her company initially promoted a new parent support group chat and a buddy system for mothers returning to work, neither of which ever manifested itself (Emma). If these programs were to be implemented within a coworking centre, women could find a community of mothers to support them as they work to balance their new life and work schedules.
Courses within the coworking space would help not only to further the centre's revenue, but also could serve as a membership benefit. These could be offered either internally (to members only) or externally (to members of the community outside of the centre). There are benefits to both options. Internal courses serve as opportunities to strengthen relationships between existing coworkers, while external courses serve to circulate knowledge and ideas as well as promote the coworking centre itself (Brown 116).
Design
The workplace and public realm have been considered “men’s spaces” for the majority of history, with the acknowledgement of gender-biassed design not recognised until the 1970s (Mihyun). With this in mind, it is important to consider all users when designing a space, including women with children.
The workplace and public realm have been considered “men’s spaces” for the majority of history, with the acknowledgement of gender-biassed design not recognised until the 1970s (Mihyun). With this in mind, it is important to consider all users when designing a space, including women with children.
Studies show that people in industrialised countries typically spend 90% of their day indoors, and for people working outside of their home, 33% of that time is typically spent in their working environment (Veitch 1). Thus, it is not difficult to understand that workplace design can affect job satisfaction, environmental satisfaction, job performance, and have non-specific health outcomes (1).
Circulation
For many mothers, and parents in general, there is a regular struggle to get through the world while pushing a pram (Mihyun). While this seems like a minimal problem in the grand scheme of things, it is a regular worry for parents. By emphasising large circulation patterns within the space, a coworking centre can take away an everyday annoyance. In addition, parents often report struggling to find a place for their pram that is not in the way of everyday pedestrian traffic (Mihyun). With just a small room, that problem can be solved. When the space is not in use for pram storage, the storage area can also be used as a safe space to store bicycles, providing use to not only parents but all coworking members.
For many mothers, and parents in general, there is a regular struggle to get through the world while pushing a pram (Mihyun). While this seems like a minimal problem in the grand scheme of things, it is a regular worry for parents. By emphasising large circulation patterns within the space, a coworking centre can take away an everyday annoyance. In addition, parents often report struggling to find a place for their pram that is not in the way of everyday pedestrian traffic (Mihyun). With just a small room, that problem can be solved. When the space is not in use for pram storage, the storage area can also be used as a safe space to store bicycles, providing use to not only parents but all coworking members.
Image 1: Circulation Graph
Image 2: Pram Storage
Individual Spaces
While coworking thrives on community, individual and quiet spaces are important for creating a successful workspace. No longer are coworking centres solely home to entrepreneurs and startup enthusiasts. Rather, these spaces are seeing an influx of corporate America and white-collar workers who are searching for remote options separate from their own homes (Furchgott).
While coworking thrives on community, individual and quiet spaces are important for creating a successful workspace. No longer are coworking centres solely home to entrepreneurs and startup enthusiasts. Rather, these spaces are seeing an influx of corporate America and white-collar workers who are searching for remote options separate from their own homes (Furchgott).
Bella, the director of a coworking space in Cincinnati, Ohio, explains that one of her goals for her space in the future is more closed-off areas, explaining “we have big sweeping event spaces that people cowork in. Wide-open, beautiful spaces, but sometimes it can be challenging to get into a heads-down mindset” (Bella). By creating closed spaces for individuals, small groups, and even for mothers and their children, a coworking centre directed towards the maternal workforce can celebrate the individual work experience while still allowing the emotional and social support users tend to get from coworking spaces (Orel 9).
Image 3. Individual workspaces. Clockwise from left: individual work spaces, (2) work-play rooms.
Image 4. Work-Play Rooms. For mother-child work and play to occur simultaneously.
Group Spaces
As previously mentioned, coworking spaces before the pandemic relied largely on startups and entrepreneurs (Furchgott). While telecommuters who do not favour working from home have begun to become common patrons of coworking spaces, meeting areas are still essential to coworking space design. Conference and meeting rooms are essential to a successful coworking space, whether they are for meetings between company members, interviews with clients or employees, or for less formal occasions. These spaces can be used for community events and courses outside of normal work hours as well, and larger open spaces can provide bigger meeting areas with a simple drop-down projector screen.
As previously mentioned, coworking spaces before the pandemic relied largely on startups and entrepreneurs (Furchgott). While telecommuters who do not favour working from home have begun to become common patrons of coworking spaces, meeting areas are still essential to coworking space design. Conference and meeting rooms are essential to a successful coworking space, whether they are for meetings between company members, interviews with clients or employees, or for less formal occasions. These spaces can be used for community events and courses outside of normal work hours as well, and larger open spaces can provide bigger meeting areas with a simple drop-down projector screen.
Image 5. Group workspaces. Clockwise from left: four-person conference room, ten-person conference room, booth seating.
Image 6. Ten-Person Conference Room. For large group meetings.
Image 6. Ten-Person Conference Room. For large group meetings.
Flexible Seating
Although open seating is now fairly common in American workplace design, coworking centres are often believed to be where it was first utilised (Brown 117). Flexible seating arrangements make people more visible and connected, encouraging group collaboration and community that extends outside of the workplace (Bernstein and Waber).
Although open seating is now fairly common in American workplace design, coworking centres are often believed to be where it was first utilised (Brown 117). Flexible seating arrangements make people more visible and connected, encouraging group collaboration and community that extends outside of the workplace (Bernstein and Waber).
Some coworking firms, such as Bella’s, operate with the option to rent a desk or workspace. She explains it is typically tech workers who will spend money renting a dedicated desk with a lease they renew month-to-month (Bella). Meanwhile, other firms operate a more flexible system, permitting members to reserve spaces in conference rooms and meeting places, but allowing for the open seating to be completely undedicated (Brown 122).
Open seating is an excellent use of flexibility, both within coworking centres and private companies. After the coronavirus pandemic and the rise of hybrid and remote work, dedicated workspaces for single workers have become largely obsolete, given that they remain empty for half of the week, if not more (Howell 2). Companies have, therefore, come to rely on desk seating and flexible office space to allow for better use of their space, similar to the organisation of a coworking centre (Bernstein and Waber). Melinda, a mother of two and entrepreneur in the midwestern United States, explains that for her company, open workspaces were always important: “I needed flexibility and so I wanted everybody else to have that flexibility, too” (Melinda). As a working mother and the CEO of a large company, Melinda understands the need to allow her employees movement and versatility in their day, adding: “They can do anything, anytime, anywhere. And we had that eight years ago” (Melinda).
Not only does every person have a different work style, but different occupations and passions require different settings in which to succeed (Brown 117). Whether coworkers prefer to sit on a couch, at a more formalised desk, or in an enclosed space, it is essential for a coworking space to provide options. By incorporating a variety of seating types, a coworking centre can give a variety of choices to an assortment of different workers.
Image 8. Flexible Seating. Clockwise from left: reception, living room area, desks, and kitchen.
Image 9. Living Area. For casual seating and informal meetings.
Image 10. Desks. More formalised workspace in open area.
Image 11. Kitchen. Open space for meetings, work, and food supplied by centre.
Childcare Centre
Perhaps most important for creating flexibility for parents within a coworking centre is the incorporation of a childcare centre that operates within the space. By integrating childcare into coworking, parents are able to ensure their children are safe and nearby without compromising their work day. Furthermore, they are able to work outside the home without worries about being too far from their child should an emergency arise (Pratt 96-97).
Perhaps most important for creating flexibility for parents within a coworking centre is the incorporation of a childcare centre that operates within the space. By integrating childcare into coworking, parents are able to ensure their children are safe and nearby without compromising their work day. Furthermore, they are able to work outside the home without worries about being too far from their child should an emergency arise (Pratt 96-97).
Childcare centres can have difficulty procuring licensure, and with the current childcare crisis in America, opening a fully operational centre would be unwise. However, by opening a care centre that operates similarly to that of a fitness centre, a licence is often not necessary and strict rules or regulations do not necessarily apply (Chandler). Childcare centres that operate more like babysitter systems require the child to spend a maximum of three continuous hours in the care of the centre. Workafrolic, located in Northwest Washington, DC, operates under such a system (Chandler). However, with as little as a thirty-minute break, parents are able to return their children for another three hours of dedicated childcare (Chandler). This six-hour block allows parents to work for almost an entire day uninterrupted without the concern of their children being too far away.
Coworking with childcare options could also benefit from becoming a form of childcare cooperative. A cooperative is “a business created, owned, used, and democratically controlled by people with mutual needs” (Lechleitner). As previously mentioned, kinship care is often used to replace formalised childcare, and the implementation of a childcare cooperative provides a mix of both these options. In a childcare cooperative, trained and licensed childcare providers teach parents how to care for other children while, at the same time, creating a community of caregivers that can operate both within and outside of the formalised childcare centre (Lechleitner).
Further support for cooperative childcare comes from the perspective of centre employees. While most childcare workers leave their jobs for less stressful and more stabilised career paths, cooperative employees report more satisfaction in their jobs than nonprofit employees and are more likely to stay at their current workplace than either nonprofit or for-profit childcare providers (Matthew 76).
Melinda explains that for her and her husband, caring for their children through a childcare cooperative was life-changing. “The co-op really trained us on how to create harmony and balance when integrating taking care of our child into our days and caring for family together as a unit” (Melinda). The cooperative created a community of friends that have lasted twenty years and taught the families how to balance childcare to best promote both parents’ careers (Melinda). By training parents to be secondary caregivers within childcare centres, parents are able to both care for their own children and create a balanced and secondary care system for their community.
Cooperative childcare also incorporates the values of coworking centres: community and collaboration. By working in the same space, caring for children together, and encouraging stronger balance through the separation of home and work, coworking spaces that include childcare centres can create a significant difference for the American maternal workforce.
Image 12. Childcare space. Childcare attached to coworking allows for a more supportive environment for the maternal workforce.
Image 13. Reading Area. Where children can experience storytime.
Image 14. Arts & Crafts. Art area for children during daycare.
CONCLUSION
Despite huge strides over the last century, women in America are still not considered equal to their male counterparts (Ferrante). This inequality only expands when considering mothers, especially those who choose to work (Ferrante). For nearly ten years, women have surpassed men in graduation rates for college and over 70% of women with children work at least part-time (Employment Characteristics of Families - 2022). Yet, 60% of the American public still feel that a child is better off with a parent caring for them in the home, and nearly half of those feel it should be the mother who does so (Ferrante).
As birth rates decline and the workforce faces shortages, it is essential for businesses to prioritise the sustainability of their maternal workforce (World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results 1). In modern America, working mothers face bias in everything from hiring practices to promotions. Mothers are only called back after interviewing 18.4% of the time (compared to the 22.6% for childless women) and are often subjected to smaller wages, due to an assumption that they are less dedicated to their work (Gaskell). Even women who remain with the companies they worked for before having children see new discrimination appearing as soon as they announce their pregnancy. Coworkers and bosses “mentally cloak pregnant women and new mothers in a haze of femininity, assuming they will be empathetic, emotional, gentle, and nonaggressive – that is, not very good at business” (‘The Maternal Wall’).
Oftentimes, when it comes to motherhood, “coworkers and bosses perceive a trade-off between competence and warmth” despite any evidence to the contrary (‘The Maternal Wall’). Melinda explains that she encourages women outside her company not to reveal their pregnancies, adding “In the corporate world, you’ll be slighted. It’s still the same as it was for me [twenty-five years ago]” (Melinda). In order for companies to remain successful and keep their maternal employees, they must work to eliminate these biases and slights that have arisen since women joined the workforce.
Businesses must work to lessen these prejudices through bias training and creating inclusive environments. However, in today’s economy, where over half of the American workforce is able to work remotely at least part of the time, this is often difficult to achieve. To truly help working mothers in the current American economy, it is important to emphasise flexibility in all aspects of the working world. Coworking centres are known for creating inclusive, collaborative, and community-oriented work environments, and are an excellent option for encouraging the American maternal workforce without decimating a company’s bottom line (Brown 112).
Although once popular only to the startup and entrepreneur community, coworking centres have risen as an alternative for remote workers since the coronavirus pandemic hijacked the American workforce (Furchgott). Coworking centres that include childcare take inclusive working one step further by allowing mothers to have an alternate space to work outside their home, while ensuring their children are nearby and in good hands (Chandler). Childcare cooperatives operating within coworking centres could also lead to a strong community supportive of mothers, not only within the work environment, but also in their daily lives.
While being a working mother in the United States can often be discouraging and discriminatory, by encouraging flexibility, companies can improve the experiences of their maternal employees exponentially and retain their workforce into the future. With the help of coworking centres, flexible work in trusting companies can be the key to improving the experience of the working mother in America.
Allan, Elizabeth J, and Mary Madden. Diane Publishing, Collingdale, PA, 2009, pp. 1–52, Hazing in View: College Students at Risk.
Atkinson, Quentin D, and Pierrick Bourrat. “Beliefs about God, the afterlife and morality support the role of supernatural policing in human cooperation.” Evolution and Human Behavior, vol. 32, no. 1, Jan. 2011, pp. 41–49. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.07.008.
Barshay, Jill. “PROOF POINTS: New Poll Points to College and Career Benefits of Greek Life despite Criticism.” The Hechinger Report, Newspack, 19 July 2021, hechingerreport.org/proof-points-new-poll-points-to-college-and-career-benefits-of-greek-life-despite-criticism/.
Boyd, Robert, et al. “The cultural niche: Why social learning is essential for human adaptation.” PNAS, vol. 108, 20 June 2011, pp. 10918–10925, https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1100290108.
Callais, Mari Ann. “Helping Fraternity and Sorority Members Understand Ritual.” Oracle: The Research Journal of the Association of Fraternity Advisors, vol. 1, no. 1, Aug. 2005, pp. 32–37. ScholarWorks, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.25774/0tgn-4p37.
Callais, Mari Ann. “Sorority Rituals: Rites of Passage and Their Impact on Contemporary Sorority Women.” LSU Digital Commons, Louisiana State University, 2002, https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3120&context=gradschool_dissertations. Accessed 13 Feb. 2023.
Cimino, Aldo. “Fraternity Hazing and the Process of Planned Failure.” Journal of American Studies, vol. 52, no. 1, Feb. 2018, pp. 214–236. Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021875816001924.
Corts, Daniel, and Brett Wells. “Measuring Attitudes towards Sorority and Fraternity Members: Indication of Implicit, Ingroup Favoritism.” College Student Journal, vol. 42, no. 2, Jan. 2008, pp. 842–846. ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313397074_Measuring_Attitudes_towards_Sorority_and_Fraternity_Members_Indication_of_Implicit_Ingroup_Favoritism.
Gallup, 2014, Fraternities and Sororities: Understanding Life Outcomes, https://www.gallup.com/services/176279/fraternities-sororities-understanding-life-outcomes.aspx. Accessed 12 Feb. 2023.
Goldfarb, Jason B, and Charles G Eberly. “Spiritual Values Among Fraternity Men Compared to Unaffiliated Men and the Influence of Hegemonic Masculinity.” Oracle: The Research Journal of the Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, vol. 6, no. 1, May 2011, pp. 39–56, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.25774/kb0z-yt85.
Henrich, Joseph. “The evolution of costly displays, cooperation and religion: credibility enhancing displays and their implications for cultural evolution.” Evolution and Human Behavior, vol. 30, no. 4, July 2009, pp. 244–260. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.03.005.
Hohman, Maura, and Josh Moody. “What to Know Before Joining Greek Life.” U.S. News & World Report, U.S. News & World Report, 30 Dec. 2019, www.usnews.com/education/best-colleges/articles/2015/09/17/what-to-ask-before-joining-greek-life.
Jensen, Keith. “Prosociality.” Current Biology, vol. 26, no. 16, 22 Aug. 2016, pp. R748–R752. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.025.
Legare, Cristine H, and Mark Nielsen. “Ritual explained: interdisciplinary answers to Tinbergen’s four questions.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 29 June 2020, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0419.
Liberman, Zoe, et al. “The early social significance of shared ritual actions.” Cognition, vol. 171, Feb. 2018, pp. 42–51. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2017.10.018.
Marcus, Ezra. “The War on Frats.” The New York Times, The New York Times Company, 1 Aug. 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/08/01/style/abolish-greek-life-college-frat-racism.html.
Massey, Kyle D, and Jennifer Massey. “It Happens, Just Not to Me: Hazing on a Canadian University Campus.” Journal of College and Character, vol. 18, no. 1, 16 Feb. 2017, pp. 46–63. Taylor & Francis Online, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/2194587X.2016.1260477.
Mendez, Sylvia L, et al. “Sorority Ritual Participation and Self-Efficacy.” Oracle: The Research Journal of the Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors, vol. 12, no. 1, June 2017, pp. 1–19. Scholarworks, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.25774/d6mt-xj15.
Nielsen, Mark. “The Social Glue of Cumulative Culture and Ritual Behavior.” Child Development Perspective, vol. 12, no. 4, 11 June 2018, pp. 264–268. Society for Research in Child Development, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12297.
Nuwer, Hank. 1999, The Hank Nuwer Hazing Collection & Personal Papers, https://library.buffalostate.edu/ld.php?content_id=21476035. Accessed 12 Feb. 2023.
Sosis, Richard, et al. “Scars for war: evaluating alternative signaling explanations for cross-cultural variance in ritual costs.” Evolution and Human Behavior, vol. 28, no. 4, July 2007, pp. 234–247. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.02.007.